Earthquake Science and Engineering

Preface
Acknowledgements
About the author
1 Introduction
2 Physics of earthquakes
2.1 Causes of earthquakes
2.2 The stress state of the Earth and the Earth’s crust
2.3 The stress state of a fault and its changes during earthquakes
2.4 Laboratory experiments
2.4.1 Uniaxial compression experiments in relation to earthquakes
2.4.2 Stick-slip phenomenon for simple mechanical explanation of earthquakes, and some experiments
2.4.2.1 A simple theory of the stick-slip phenomenon
2.4.2.2 Device of stick-slip tests
2.4.2.3 Stick-slip experiment
2.5 Relations between earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
2.5.1 Observations
2.5.2 Mechanical background of heat emission during crustal deformation
2.5.2.1 Fundamental governing equation for energy conservation law
2.5.2.2 Temperature distribution in the vicinity of geological active faults
2.5.3 Strength reduction due to temperature increase
3 Waves and theory of wave propagation
3.1 Momentum conservation law
3.2 Earthquake-induced waves
3.3 Wave propagation in a pond
3.4 Wave refraction
3.5 Wave propagation through the Earth and inference of the Earth’s interior
3.6 Determination of occurrence time
3.7 Determination of hypocentre and epicentre
3.7.1 Two-dimensional determination of hypocentre and epicentre
3.7.2 Three-dimensional determination of hypocentre and epicentre
3.7.3 Specific application: the 1998 Adana-Ceyhan earthquake
3.8 Determination of magnitude
4 Faults and faulting mechanism of earthquakes
4.1 Characteristics of earthquake faults
4.2 Physical models on faulting
4.2.1 Photo-elasticity tests
4.2.1.1 Material properties
4.2.1.2 Photo-elasticity tests on the stress state of faults
4.2.1.3 Faults with regular asperities
4.2.1.4 Faults with irregular rough asperities
4.2.1.5 Finite element analyses of fault models
4.2.2 Physical model tests
4.2.2.1 Experimental device, materials and procedure
4.2.2.2 Experiments on granular ground
4.3 Characterization of earthquakes from fault ruptures
4.3.1 Relation between surface wave magnitude and moment magnitude
4.3.2 Relation between MMI and moment magnitude
4.3.3 Relation between moment magnitude and rupture length, area and net slip of fault
4.4 Inference of faulting mechanism and earthquakes
4.4.1 Inference from striations of earthquake faults
4.4.2 Inference from wave propagation characteristics
5 Strong ground motions and permanent ground deformations
5.1 Observations on strong motions and permanent deformations
5.1.1 Observations on maximum ground accelerations
5.1.2 Permanent ground deformation
5.2 Strong motion estimations
5.2.1 Empirical approach
5.2.2 Green-function-based empirical waveform estimation
5.2.3 Numerical approaches
5.2.3.1 Finite difference method
5.2.3.2 Finite element method
5.2.3.3 GPS method
5.2.3.4 InSAR method
5.2.3.5 EPS method
5.2.3.6 Okada’s method
5.2.3.7 Numerical methods
5.3 Estimations of strong motion parameters from the collapse, failure  and slippage of simple structures and simplified reinforced concrete  structures
5.3.1 Inference of strong motions from masonry walls
5.3.2 Inference of strong motions from reinforced concrete structures
5.3.3 Inference of strong motions from Mercalli Seismic Intensity
6 Vibration analyses of structures
6.1 Numerical methods
6.2 Simplified analyses of structures for their vibration characteristics
6.2.1 Free vibration
6.2.2 Damped free vibration
6.2.3 Forced vibration subjected to sinusoidal vibration
6.2.4 Forced vibration subjected to arbitrary vibration
6.3 Measurement techniques for vibration characteristics
6.3.1 Free vibration
6.3.2 Forced vibration
6.3.3 Micro-tremor measurement technique
6.4 Fourier spectra analysis
6.5 Response spectral analyses
6.6 Applications
6.6.1 Tower models
6.6.2 Building models
6.6.3 Photo-elastic frame models and Eigen value analyses by FEM
6.6.3.1 Frame only
6.6.3.2 Four-story frame models
6.6.4 Beam models
6.6.5 Tanks
6.7 Actual structures
6.7.1 Bridge of the University of the Ryukyus
6.7.2 Vibration of Yofuke Bridge due to passing trucks
6.7.3 Pole for hybrid wind and solar energy
6.7.4 Wooden houses
6.7.5 Reinforced concrete building
6.8 Past studies on the natural frequency of buildings
6.9 Dams
6.10 Wind turbines
6.11 Abandoned mines
6.12 Response of Horonobe underground research laboratory during
the 2018 June 20 Soya region earthquake and 2018 September 6
Iburi earthquake
6.12.1 Characteristics of the Soya region earthquake
6.12.2 Characteristics of Iburi earthquake
6.12.3 Acceleration records at Horonobe URL
6.12.4 Fourier and acceleration response spectra analyses
6.12.4.1 Fourier spectra analyses
6.12.4.2 Acceleration response spectra analyses
6.13 Slopes
6.13.1 Characteristics of shaking table
6.13.2 Applications to slopes and cliffs
6.13.2.1 Model materials
6.13.2.2 Testing procedure
6.13.3 Model experiments
6.13.3.1 Natural frequency of model slopes
6.14 Retaining walls
6.14.1 Model setup
6.14.2 Backfill materials and their properties
6.14.3 Shaking table tests on retaining walls with glass beads backfill
6.14.4 Shaking table tests on retaining walls with river gravel backfill
6.14.5 Shaking table tests on retaining walls with Motobu limestone gravel backfill
7 Effects of earthquakes associated surface ruptures on engineering structures
7.1 Effects of ground shaking on engineering structures
7.1.1 Buildings
7.1.1.1 Reinforced concrete buildings
7.1.1.2 Masonry buildings
7.1.1.3 Timber buildings
7.1.1.4 Secondary-type damage in buildings
7.1.2 Dams
7.1.3 Bridge and viaduct damage
7.1.4 Overturning or derailment of vehicles due to ground shaking
7.1.5 Tanks
7.1.5.1 Classifications of damage to oil tanks
7.1.5.2 Damage by the 1995 Kobe earthquake
7.1.5.3 Damage by the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake
7.1.5.4 The 2001 Kutch earthquake (India)
7.1.5.5 The 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake
7.1.6 Sinkholes due to abandoned mines and natural caves
7.1.7 Damage to tunnels and underground shelter
7.1.7.1 Damage to tunnels
7.1.7.2 Damage to the Bukittingi underground shelter
7.1.8 Slope failure
7.1.8.1 The 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake
7.1.8.2 The 2004 Chuetsu earthquake
7.1.8.3 The 2005 Kashmir earthquake
7.1.8.4 The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake
7.1.8.5 The 2008 Iwate-Miyagi intraplate earthquake
7.1.9 Embankment failure
7.1.10 Retaining-wall failure
7.2 Effects of surface ruptures induced by earthquakes on engineering structures
7.2.1 Bridges and viaducts
7.2.2 Dams
7.2.3 Tunnels and subways
7.2.4 Slope failures and rockfalls
7.2.5 Pylons
7.2.6 Linear and tubular structures
7.2.7 Buildings
7.3 Damage by ground liquefaction and lateral spreading
7.4 Effect of rockfalls on built environment
8 Seismic design of structures
8.1 Fundamental approaches
8.2 Seismic design of buildings
8.2.1 Framed structures (timber, steel and reinforced concrete structures)
8.2.2 Masonry buildings
8.2.2.1 Masonry tower or wall (out-of-plane)
8.2.2.2 Wall (in-plane)
8.2.3 Seismic design of bridges and viaducts
8.2.4 Pylons and truss structures
8.2.5 Liquid tanks on ground and elevated tanks
8.2.5.1 Liquid tanks on ground
8.2.5.2 Elevated tanks
8.3 Geotechnical structures
8.3.1 Seismic design of embankments
8.3.1.1 Pseudo-dynamic method
8.3.1.2 Dynamic limiting equilibrium method
8.3.2 Retaining walls
8.3.2.1 Pseudo-dynamic method
8.3.2.2 Dynamic limiting equilibrium method
8.3.3 Seismic design of slopes
8.3.3.1 Cliffs with toe erosion (bending failure)
8.3.3.2 Shear and planar failure
8.3.3.3 Wedge failure
8.3.3.4 Combined shearing and sliding failure
8.3.3.5 Flexural toppling failure
8.3.3.6 Blocky columnar toppling failure
8.3.3.7 Empirical relations between earthquake magnitude and limiting distance for slope failures
8.3.3.8 Relation between thoroughgoing discontinuity inclination and slope angle
8.4 Seismic design of underground structures
8.4.1 Tunnels
8.4.1.1 Shallow soil tunnels and conduits
8.4.1.2 Shallow underground openings in discontinuous rock mass
8.4.1.3 Tunnels in rock mass
8.4.2 Rock caverns
8.4.3 Underground shelters
8.4.4 Tunnels below abandoned mines
8.4.5 Seismic design of shafts in rock mass
8.4.6 Empirical approaches
8.5 Seismic design of concrete dams
8.6 Nuclear power plants
8.7 Assessment of ground liquefaction and countermeasures
8.7.1 Definition of ground liquefaction
8.7.2 Governing equations of ground liquefaction
8.7.3 Solution of governing equations
8.7.4 Empirical liquefaction susceptibility methods
8.7.4.1 Geologic criterion
8.7.4.2 Empirical liquefaction distance-magnitude method
8.7.4.3 Grain size-based method
8.7.4.4 Standard penetration test value-based method: the Seed method
8.7.4.5 Permeability and shear strength based method: method of Aydan-Kumsar
8.7.5 Lateral spreading: deformation estimation
8.7.5.1 Empirical methods
8.7.5.2 Sliding body analysis
8.7.5.3 Analytical model for an infinitely long visco-elastic layer
8.7.5.4 Numerical methods and simplified methods
8.7.5.5 Experiments on lateral spreading of dry ground
8.7.6 Settlement of structures in liquefiable ground
8.7.7 Uplift of structures in liquefiable ground
8.7.7.1 Dynamic limiting equilibrium method for uplift of structures
8.7.7.2 Pseudo-dynamic design of tunnels, conduits and culverts against uplift
8.7.7.3 Numerical analysis of a tunnel in liquefiable ground
8.7.8 Shaking table tests on the settlement of wave breaks
8.7.9 Important observations and countermeasures against ground liquefaction
9 Tsunami: Its effects on structures, and the fundamentals
of tsunami-proof design
9.1 Mechanism of tsunamis
9.1.1 Earthquake faulting
9.1.2 Land or submarine slides
9.1.3 Submarine volcanic eruption
9.1.4 Meteorite falls
9.2 Governing equations of tsunamis
9.2.1 Fundamental equations in fluid mechanics
9.2.2 Fundamental equations for tsunamis
9.2.3 Applications of fundamental equations for tsunamis
9.2.3.1 Faulting-induced tsunamis
9.2.3.2 Volcanism-induced tsunami
9.2.3.3 Slope-failure-induced tsunami
9.2.3.4 Tsunami occurrence by meteorite impacts
9.2.4 Estimation of tsunami arrival time
9.3 Model tsunami tests
9.3.1 Faulting-induced tsunami (normal and thrust)
9.3.1.1 Experimental facility and experiments at Tokai University
9.3.1.2 Experimental facility and experiments at the University of Ryukyus
9.3.2 Water surface changes due to impactors
9.3.2.1 Experiments on water level variations due to impactor in closed water bodies
9.3.2.2 Theoretical modelling on water level variations due to impactor in closed water bodies and its applications
9.3.2.3 Experiments on water level variations due to sliding or toppling bodies into closed water bodies
9.4 Effects of tsunamis on structures and the environment
9.4.1 Tsunami damage to industrial facilities
9.4.2 Tsunami damage to ports and coastal facilities
9.4.3 Tsunami damage to transportation facilities
9.4.4 Responses of airports
9.4.5 Tsunami damage to buildings
9.4.6 Effect of tsunami on slopes
9.4.7 Damage to embankments
9.4.8 Responses of gigantic breakwaters and causes of their damage
9.5 Inference of tsunamis heights
9.6 Tsunami boulders and their utilization for inference of magnitude of paleo mega earthquakes
9.7 Tsunami-proof structural design principles
9.7.1 Tsunami-induced forces on structures
9.7.2 Recommendations for measures against tsunami
10 Earthquake prediction
10.1 Physical background on anomalous phenomena observed in earthquakes
10.2 Implications of responses of rocks and discontinuities during fracturing and slippage
10.3 Available methods for earthquake prediction
10.3.1 Tilting or ground deformation anomaly method
10.3.2 Creep method
10.3.3 Groundwater level anomaly method
10.3.4 Elastic wave velocity anomaly method
10.3.5 Electrical resistivity anomaly method
10.3.6 Electric field anomaly method
10.3.7 Magnetic field anomaly method
10.3.8 Seismic gap method
10.3.9 Gas emission anomaly method
10.3.10 Gravity anomaly method
10.3.11 Anomalous animal behaviour method
10.4 Global positioning method for earthquake prediction
10.4.1 Theoretical background
10.4.2 Applications
10.4.2.1 Prediction of earthquake epicentres
10.4.3 Prediction of time of occurrence and recurrence
10.4.4 Prediction of magnitude
10.4.5 Effect of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake on the epicentral area of the anticipated Tokai earthquake
10.5 Anomalous phenomena observed in the 1999 Düzce earthquake
and other earthquakes in Turkey
10.5.1 Gas emissions
10.5.2 Groundwater level observations
10.5.3 Earthquake lights
10.5.4 Geomagnetic and gravity anomalies
10.5.4.1 Ground tilting and deformation
10.5.5 Anomalous animal behaviour
10.5.6 Effects of the Sun and and the moon on earthquakes
10.6 Application of the multi-parameter monitoring system to
earthquakes in Denizli Basin and Sumatra Island of Indonesia
References
Index